ANIMAL ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY BAG101

Duration:        100 hours (nominal duration)

Course Structure

The eleven lessons in this unit are:

1. Introduction to cells & tissues
2. The Digestive System
3. The Circulatory System
4. The Urinary System
5. The Nervous System
6. Respiration
7. The Reproductive System
8. Muscles & Meat
9. The Skeleton
10. Animal Growth, Development, and the Endocrine System
11. Comparing Different Animals

Course Aims

• Explain the physical components of animals, including cells and tissues.
• Explain the digestive system of animals, in terms of both structure and function.
• Explain the circulatory system of animals, in terms of both structure and function.
• Explain the urinary system of animals, in terms of both structure and function.
• Explain the nervous system of animals, in terms of both structure and function.
• Explain the respiratory system of animals, in terms of both structure and function.
• Explain the reproductive system of animals, including structure and function.
• Explain the muscular system in animals, including the structure and function of muscles.
• Explain the skeletal system of a typical mammal, in terms of both structure and function.
• Explain the biological mechanisms underlying the growth and development of animals.
• Explain the endocrine system of animals, in terms of both structure and function.
• Explain differences between different types of animals, in terms of both structure and function.

What you will do as part of this course:

• Distinguish between the major animal types used in primary production, including birds, fish, ruminants, and non ruminants.
• List different types of products commercially produced or derived from various farm or wild animals.
• Explain the role of pastures for animal husbandry, in your locality.
• Report on the scope of animal production in your locality.
• Identify parts of an animal cell and make a diagram
• Describe the major features of a living animal cell, including structure and function.
• Explain an example of how cells interact in live animals.
• Explain cell function for different types of cells in animals.
• Differentiate between the composition of three different types of animal tissues, using illustrations.
• Explain the function of different animal tissue types.
• Describe the processes of nutrient and waste exchange in animal cells.
• Label diagrams of the digestive system of these three different animals.
• Describe the processes occurring in digestion, in each section of the digestive system.
• Compare the digestive systems of different animals including:
• Describe the action of enzymes and micro-organisms in the digestion of an animal of your choice (name the animal).
• Explain the role of accessory organs, including the liver and the pancreas. Outline differences in the care of 2 animals observed. Comment on any differences observed.
• Explain the components of blood in animals studied
• Explain the biological functions of blood in animals studied
• Label the parts of the circulatory system in an mammal
• Explain the structure of an artery.
• Distinguish between the characteristics of the various types of blood vessels found in mammals.
• Explain the role of the lymphatic system in a studied animal.
• Label diagram of a urinary system found in the unlabelled diagrams booklet. Explain the role of the urinary system of animals.
• Describe the operation of the various parts of the urinary system, in one of the following animals.
• Describe different components of the nervous systems of studied animals, including
• Distinguish between the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
• Explain the function of the autonomic nervous system in an animal.
• Describe the structure of the sensory organs, including the ear, eye and nose.
• Explain the function of the sensory organs
• Describe components of the respiratory system of animals.
• Explain the purpose of the respiratory system in animals.
• Explain how the respiratory system functions in animals.
• Describe the process of gaseous exchange between the alveolus and capillaries.
• Explain how the rate of breathing is controlled in animals.
• Label the unlabelled diagrams of the male and female reproductive systems.
• Describe the function of each of the components of the male reproductive system.
• Explain the various physiological processes in the male reproductive system including:
• Explain different fertility problems in a male animal.
• Describe the function of components of the female reproductive system.
• Explain the various physiological processes in the female reproductive system.
• Explain various fertility problems in a female animal.
• Explain two different 'difficult birth' conditions encountered in animals.
• Distinguish between the slides of 3 different muscle types including smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and striated muscle.
• Compare how the three types of muscle function.
• Describe the components of the musculatory system of an animal.
• Define meat quality in relation to muscle development.
• Identify the cuts and joints of meat derived from sheep, cattle, and pigs.
• List the different cuts of meat you observed and describe the appearance of that meat.
• Explain the role of the skeletal system in an animal.
• Describe the anatomy of a typical long bone.
• Explain how bone is formed in an animal.
• Draw and label the following different skeletal parts on a series of diagrams
• Explain the operation of a freely moving joint in a skeleton.
• Differentiate between different types of bone fractures in animals including simple breaks and compound fractures.
• Describe the healing process for the different types of fractures.
• Explain the processes of growth and development at a cellular level.
• Describe pre-natal and post-natal growth processes in different animals.
• List factors which influence the size of newborn animals.
• List factors which influence growth after birth.
• List the components of the endocrine system in an animal.
• Distinguish between different endocrine glands, for a specified animal, by location, appearance, and function.
• Describe five hormones found in animals.
• Explain the role of the endocrine system in animals.
• Prepare a table/chart which shows characteristics that distinguish some mammals from poultry, from fish, and from crustaceans in each of the main systems.
• Compare the differences between structural and physiological characteristics of two different animals.

Course Tutors and Developers

Alison Tranter
Since qualifying with a BSc in Equine Sports Coaching I have worked as a lecturer in Equine Science, Sports Science, Business Management, Sports Coaching and Animal care. These academic qualifications are complemented by practical experience through careers as a Marketing Assistant, Sales Representative, Veterinary Business Manager and Course Manager for Distance Learning Courses and training in life coaching, NLP (Neuro Linguistic Programming) and developing and achieveing peak performance

Peter Douglas Dip Animal Husbandry
Peter has over 45 years of experience in Agriculture and resources management. He is a former lecturer with the University of Queensland (Gatton), and manager of Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary. He also established and managed the wildlife park for Dreamworld, one of Australia's largest theme parks. Peter has both wide ranging experience in farming and wildlife management, and continues to apply that knowledge both through his work with ACS, and helping his adult children who have pursued careers of their own in similar areas. Peter Douglas

Dr James Euclid B.Vsc.(Hons), B.VBiol (Hons), PhD.

Dr James Euclid graduated with honours in Veterinary Science from the University of Queensland , Australia in 1985. After 5 years in mixed practise, he undertook a PhD in Veterinary Parasitology at James Cook University in Queensland . Upon completion, he tutored at the University of Melbourne . After a year, he returned to general practise. He has since written two books on veterinary clinical practise and runs his own practise in Melbourne , Australia. Peter Douglas

Bob James M.Env., Sc., Dip.Animal Husb, B.App.Sc., Grad.Dip.Mgt, PDC 40 years experience in industry, having held a wide variety of senior positions in both government and private enterprise.
Bob's experience and knowledge is diverse, encompassing fields of Horticulture, Agriculture, Environmental Management, Business and professional writing.

Corrine de Mestre BSc(hons) Zoology/Environmental Science
Corrine graduated with a Bsc from James Cook University and Honours (Reptilian Endocrinology) from the University of Tasmania . She has spent several years volunteering for various organisations dedicated wildlife management and captive husbandry. Corrine has 8 years experience in Environmental/Wildlife Education and Tour Guiding. She has spent several years living and working overseas including teaching English in Japan , working as an Environmental Education Officer for The London Wildlife Trust and The Royal Parks, London . Currently works as a Fauna Ecologist and is studying a Masters degree in Wildlife Management.

Sample Course Notes

Throughout a mammal's body, there are groups of specialised cells which form large glands. These glands are unlike all other glands because they have no duct and so pour their secretions directly and by diffusion into the blood vessels. Because of this unique feature they are called ductless, or endocrine, glands. The secretions of endocrine glands are called hormones and these belong to two main chemical groups, the steroids and the amino acid derivatives.

The secretions of the endocrine glands play an important part in regulating the functions of the body and some of them act directly on muscles and other glands in a way that is very similar to the actions of nerve impulses. Other hormones are concerned with the regulation of the body's metabolism and growth. Some endocrine glands are themselves stimulated by hormones from other glands, but are under the control of the nervous system and thus are able to respond very rapidly to changes.

Examples of endocrine glands include: the pituitary body; the thyroid; the parathyroids; the testes and ovaries; the pancreas; the thymus and the mucous membranes of the stomach and small intestines. These are discussed in more detail below. Again, do not try to learn all the organs and hormones off by heart. The following is included to give you background knowledge so that when you come across the hormone in later courses you will be familiar with its name.

This is a fairly large gland situated in the base of the skull just below the hypothalamus. The hormones produced by the pituitary that are of interest to the animal manager are:

• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (T.S.H.) which influences the development of the thyroid gland. (The thyroid gland controls growth and performance).
• Follicle stimulating hormone (F.S.H.) and the luteinising hormone (L.H.), both of which are involved in reproduction.
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (A.C.T.H.) which stimulates the activity of the adrenal body. (The adrenal body has an important role in regulating the heart beat, blood pressure and the level of glucose in the blood).
• Lactogenic hormone (L.T.H.) which starts milk production in the pregnant female.
• Somatrophic hormone (S.T.H.) which stimulates growth. In excess, it causes the formation of giants. It also stimulates the release of glucagon from the pancreas.
• Oxytocin which is released when the mammary glands are stimulated by suckling and which causes the ejection of milk.
• Antidiuretic hormone (A.D.H.) which increases the re-absorption of water and sodium back into the body and so decreases the amount of urine produced.

This is a relatively large gland lying in the region of the throat. The main hormone produced is thyroxine whose main function is to promote growth in the young animal and to speed up most of the body functions in the adult. A deficiency of thyroxine causes a general slowing down and sluggishness in the animal while an excess has the opposite effect.

These are found next to the thyroid. Parathyroids produce a hormone which works with Vitamin D to maintain an adequate concentration of calcium in the blood. The effect of this hormone is thought to be one reason for "milk fever" in newly calved cows. Milk fever is caused when the demand for milk by the calf produces a lack of calcium in the mother's body.

This is found next to the heart. Its main function is to produce lymphocytes in the young animal. It also helps to develop immunological reactions which defend the animal against bacterial and viral infections. The thymus becomes less active as the animal grows.

These are found near the kidneys. The important hormones produced are:

• Adrenalin which increases the rate of the heart beat and output of the heart so that more blood is brought to the muscles. It increases the amount of glucose in the blood by increasing the rate of breakdown of glycogen in the liver. This is accompanied by increased oxygen consumption and an increase in the production of heat and energy. Adrenalin causes symptoms of anxiety in humans and animals.
• Noradrenaline has very similar effects to adrenalin but increases the blood pressure by constricting the arteries through stimulation of the smooth muscle in their walls.
• Corticosteroids which increase the level of glucose in the blood by increasing the rate of breakdown of protein and fats. They also induce male secondary sexual characteristics (such as more muscling, coarse hair etc).
• These hormones are steroids and are often taken by athletes (especially weight-lifters) to increase their muscle and so their strength. Women who take these steroids are quite likely to develop male characteristics such as hair on the face and chest!

This organ is situated beside the liver. It produces two protein hormones : insulin and glucagon. Insulin lowers the level of glucose in the blood by increasing the rate at which it is converted to glycogen. Glucagon acts to opposite way by increasing the rate at which glycogen in the liver is converted into glucose. Between them, these two hormones control the amount of glucose in the blood.

The testes produce a series of steroid hormones called androgens, the chief one being testosterone. Their functions are to maintain the male ducts and glands in good condition; to develop male characteristics (horn, hair, deep voice etc.); to stimulate sperm production and to increase the rate of protein build-up when necessary.

Ovarian hormones include oestrogen, progesterone and relaxin. The first two hormones are steroids and the last is a protein hormone.

Oestrogen prepare the reproductive tract for reproduction. They also produce many secondary sexual characteristics such as the enlargement of the mammary glands at puberty.

Progesterone also prepares the reproductive tract for pregnancy and activates the mammary glands to secrete milk. This hormone will suppress ovulation while the female is pregnant. Oestrogen and progesterone are released at different times in a cycle that is repeated until fertilisation takes place. After pregnancy and birth, the cycle sets up again.

Relaxin causes the cervix of the uterus to widen at birth and also stops uterine contractions.

This is found in the brain and produces a hormone called melatonin. This appears to be sensitive to light and is thought to control seasonal sexual activity in animals (e.g. coming into heat in spring because of the longer day light hours).

This membrane produces the hormone gastrin which affects the breakdown and digestion of foodstuffs.

This membrane produces the hormone secretin which travels to the pancreas via the bloodstream and stimulates the production of the pancreatic juices.

Develop a sound foundation knowledge of animal anatomy and physiology, as a basis to understanding care and/or management of animals in domesticated or wild situations.

If you want to understand animals; this is the perfect starting point!